Regional Geography- Development of Paris as an Urban Area

Examine the factors which have influenced the development of one urban area in a European region (not Ireland) that you have studied.

The European urban area I have studied is Paris in France. 12 million people live in the city of Paris, with 25 million in the whole Paris basin. Due to this huge population, the city now extends over an area of 100km. This urban sprawl led to the creation of five new towns on the city's perimeter to accommodate for the overspill from the city. Marne-la-Vallée is an example of one of these towns, with a population of over 100,00 people. Many urban renewal programmes have also been put in place by the French government to improve the inner city. 

As the city of Paris was developed during medieval times on a bridging point and as a defensive settlement on the River Seine, many problems have developed such as traffic congestion, urban decay and inner city decline. To deal with these problems, the French government developed a scheme called 'Schéma Directeur' in 1964 to control growth and improve suburban areas in the city. The scheme involves protecting historical buildings, investing in public transport, urban renewal and regeneration projects in the older run down areas of the inner city. It also includes the development of suburban nodes or growth centers like shopping centers and the development of new towns along with decentralization of services from the city. These methods have all improves the development of the Paris Basin.

The Paris Basin is nowadays the most popular destination for immigrants to France with 1.3 million of all French migrants living there. Due to immigration of thousands from China, Eastern Europe and North and West Africa in Paris, problems can arise in poorer parts of the city. These areas can then develop into ghettos. With many immigrants still on the edges of French society, this can lead to poverty, youth unemployment and unequal opportunities. In 2005, terrible riots took place after 2 North African youths were killed for hiding from the police. Controversy has also developed due to the French governments restrictions on wearing headscarves. Riots took place due to this racial discrimination to Islamic women. Since the 1980's, due to these problems migration out of the region has increased due to recent job losses and strict immigration laws. All of the factors above have led to the development of Paris as an urban centre.

Physical Geography- Sedimentary and Metamorphic Rocks

Explain the formation of sedimentary rocks and explain briefly how they may be transformed into metamorphic rocks, with reference to Irish examples you have studied.

Sedimentary rocks were formed millions of years ago when the remains of animals and plants built up and compacted and cemented to form solid rock. Sedimentary rocks form in layers . This is because over time the rock fragments and remains of plants and animals build up in stratified layers. Each stratified layer is separated from the next by bedding planes, There are 2 types of sedimentary rocks: organic and inorganic. Limestone is an organic sedimentary rock. It is the most common rock type in Ireland and formed from the cemented remains of fish and other sea creatures. Limestone is made up of bedding planes containing vertical cracks called joints, which make the rock permeable. The Burren in Co. Clare is a well-known limestone region. Sandstone is an inorganic sedimentary rock. Sandstone is formed when rock sediments laid down in layers and over time each successive layer is compressed to the next layer. Most of the sandstone in Ireland is old red sandstone and was formed approximately 400 million years ago. Sandstone can be found in the Comeragh mountains, Co. Waterford and the Macgillycuddy Reeks, Co. Kerry.

Metamorphic rocks are formed when the appearance, texture and chemical composition of igneous or sedimentary are changed by great heat or pressure, or both. This can happen in 2 ways. Thermal metamorphism occurs when rocks are exposed to the heat of magma alone and this changes their composition. Regional metamorphism occurs due to great heat and pressure over a large region due to colliding plates and rising magma. With metamorphism, limestone is changed into marble. This is a hard crystalline rock of various colours and can be found in Connemara, Co. Galway. Sandstone is changed into quartzite. This is a light-coloured rock, often white, and can be found in the Great Sugarloaf Mountain, Co. Wicklow and Croagh Patrick, Co. Mayo. 

Physical Geography- Prediction and Effects of Earthquakes

Explain how the occurrence of earthquakes can be predicted and how the effects of earthquakes can be reduced with reference to examples you have studied

An earthquake is the shaking or vibration of the Earth's crust. Earthquakes occur due to the movement of tectonic plates where the crust is under extreme pressure. Scientists have developed different methods of earthquake prediction to allow people enough time to prepare for the negative effects. Seismologists study the seismic history of the region because as soon as one earthquake occurs, pressure and tension begins to build up again. They also look for patterns of seismic activity to calculate the likelihood of an earthquake occurring. The longer the time since the last earthquake, the more imminent the next one is. Instruments called tiltmeters record changes in land levels. A bulge in the land may indicate a build up of pressure on the plates. Scientists may also look for signs of disturbance like foreshocks. Animal behaviour may also predict earthquake activity as animals tend to behave strangely before an earthquake.

The ability of a country to limit the effects of earthquakes is directly linked to its level of economic development. Developed countries will often have earthquake-proof buildings in regions prone to earthquake activity. These buildings use flexible columns to allow for movement. Building construction and bridges in these regions will be fire-proof. The buildings will be constructed on stable ground where liquefaction is not possible. Also, they region will regularly practice evacuation and safety plans to reduce deal with emergencies. These resources are much less available in developing countries.

An example of an earthquake I have studied is the Haitian earthquake of January 2010. This earthquake occurred on January 12 and measured 7.0 on the Richter Scale. Its epicenter was 25km west of Port-au-Prince. The effects of the earthquake were felt in several countries, including Jamaica, Cuba, Puerto Rica and the Dominican Republic. The earthquake occurred on the boundary between the Caribbean and the North-American Plate. As Haiti is a developing country, they were not well equipped to deal with an earthquake of this magnitude. Since the earthquake, over 200,000 people have been affected by cholera. The earthquake damaged infrastructure, which made it difficult to disperse aid. It is estimated that 300,000 died, over 300,000 were injured and 1 million were left homeless. Following the earthquake, seismologists started to examine the building up of pressure along the fault line to predict and reduce the effects of future earthquakes.

Geography Economic Elective- Colonialism

Examine the impact of colonialism on any developing economy you have studied

A developing economy I have studied that has been affected by colonialism is India. Colonialism is the domination of areas by powerful countries, primarily for economic gain. The changes in India's economic development is directly related to it's colonial past.

India was a British colony until it gained independence in 1947. Under the British Empire, unprocessed raw materials from India were used to fuel the economy of the colonial power. As a result, cash crops like tea, coffee, jute, spices and rubber took over from traditional food crops and caused major changes in native agricultural activities. The establishment of large plantations saw land removed from peasant ownership. These plantations were also established in the most fertile areas, which had a negative impact on food production for local people. India's industrial output was also limited so that it would not compete with  it's colonial power Britain. 

Prior to colonialism, India had well-developed craft manufacturing industries, especially textiles. It also had a good labour force and access to raw materials. However, under British rule, these industries were forced into decline to allow British products to access the large Indian market. Britain also wanted the unprocessed raw materials for its own economic gain. It processed these raw materials and India in turn bought back the more expensive finished product from Britain. The British Empire also failed to invest in India's infrastructure, They did, however, develop ports, such as Mumbai. Chennai and Kolkata. They also developed a long railway network. Both of these investments were for their own gain so that they could transport the raw materials easily and then export them back to Britain. Over time, India's trade became dependent on Britain. India produced raw materials and cash crops, while Britain became a key economic power in the production and sale of finished goods in the developed and developing world. Taxes were also placed on the Indian population, and these were paid to the British Empire. 

Under colonialism, India suffered greatly as the economy, raw materials and labour were exploited by Britain.

Geoecology Essay- Humans accelerating soil erosion

Discuss how human activities can accelerate soil erosion.

Soil erosion is when soil particles in the land get transported by gravity, water or wind. The human processes that accelerate soil erosion are overgrazing, over-cropping and desertification.

Overgrazing
Overgrazing occurs when farmers stock too many animals such as sheep, cattle or goats on their land. This damages the soil surface and increases the rate of soil erosion. Animals eat the vegetation cover and their hooves dig into the soil in wet areas or compact it into a hard surface in dry regions. This prevents grass growth and prevents water from percolating into the soil. Dry soils are eroded by the wind very easily. Once the soil has been trampled on and stripped of plants, its structure is damaged and its ability to hold water and nutrients is reduced. Soil structure is important because plant roots and water are found in the spaces between the soil peds. Peds are the small grains which are held together by humus and water. Peds have different shapes. Rounded peds give the soil a crumb structure. A crumb structure is best for soil aeration, water content and fertility. Overgrazing can change the structure to a platy structure or destroy the structure completely. As a result it can be easily eroded by wind and rain and pasture growth is also reduced. Too many animals on the land will eat all the plants and strip the soil of its protective vegetation cover. Plants, roots and branches protect soil from wind and rain. Soils that are exposed become drier and are easily blown or washed away. This situation has happened in many places around the world such as the Sahel region of Africa where population growth has led to an increase in the number of cattle and goats grazing on already dry land. It also occurred in Co. Mayo in Ireland during the 1990's when EU farm subsidies encouraged farmers to overstock their land with too many sheep. The fragile boglands of West Mayo were severely damaged.

Over-cropping 
Over-cropping occurs when the land is under continuous cultivation and is not allowed to lie fallow in between crops. The effect of over-cropping on soils is to reduce its water content and fertility. Infertile soils are more easily eroded by wins and rain. As nutrients are removed its structure is damaged as well. Over-cropped soils become dry and very dusty because the humus content has been reduced. Humus is important for improving the texture and structure of soil and for keeping it moist. In the Sahel region of Africa, over-cropping and overgrazing often occur together as a result of population increase. More people on the land leads to greater numbers of farmers who keep animals and grow crops. There is also less land to go around so whatever amount of land is available is under stress to produce food for the increasing population. Intensive cultivation of land in the soya plantations of South America can also lead to over-cropping. Here the soil is fertilized but the application of chemical fertilizers does not benefit the land as much as applying manure from animal waste. Therefore, over time the soil structure is damaged as it is over-cropped. The effect of over-cropping can be reduced by the addition of organic matter (cattle dung) to the soil and through immigration.

Desertification
Desertification is the spread of desert conditions into new ares. Desertified soils are dry , dusty and lack humus. Their fertility is reduced and they are affected by soil erosion. Africa is the continent most at risk from desertification, although Southern Europe, especially Southern Spain, is also at risk. Desertification often occurs as a result of a combination of drought, over-cropping, overgrazing and deforestation. High population growth in countries such as Sudan contributes to desertification due to the increases demand for food and fuel. Drought conditions increases the chance of desertification occurring when the soil is already stressed by over-cropping and overgrazing. In Sahelian countries such as Chad and Niger, cotton and cashew nuts are grown as cash crops on huge plantations as part of economic reforms in return for debt relief. People are removed form their land to make way for the plantations and must make a living on poor land at the edge of the plantations. The land is overgrazes and over-cropped and trees are cut down for fuel and building materials. Because so many trees have been cut down, cattle dung is used for fuel instead. This further deprives the soil of valuable nutrients, leading to increases desertification in the region during drought. The introduction of solar cookers in the Sahel could reduce the need for timber as a fuel. Trees are then planted which can help slow desertification in the region. 

Everywhere in the world where people change a natural ecosystem into agriculture, the land degrades. The visible part is erosion, when soil particles leave the land, transported by gravity, water or wind.

Geoecology Essay- Plant and Animal Adaptations to a Biome

Describe how plants and animals adapt to soil and climatic conditions in a biome you have studied.

A biome is an eco-system of 4 inter-related parts: climate, soils, plants and animals. The biome I have studied is the Tropical Rainforest Biome. In this biome, plants and animals have evolved body structures and ways of living that enable them to survive and reproduce in the particular soil and climatic conditions.

Climate and how plants adapt
In the tropical rainforest, the climate is wet and humid all year round. Heavy convectional rain falls each day with over 6000mm per year. Temperatures are high (average 27 C) and this combined with the heavy rainfall leads to high humidity, around 80%. Plants have adapted to the wet and humid conditions in many ways in order to survive in the tropical rainforest biome. Many plants have leaves designed to shed water from their surface very quickly. This prevents the branches becoming weighed down with water and breaking. Such designs include: 1. elongated leaves with deep grooves on the leaf surface to channel water to the tips, 2. leaves with very pointed ends (drip tips) to allow water to pour off them easily, and 3. smooth and hairless leaf surfaces to allow water to flow easily over them. A typical plant with these adaptations is the palm oil tree. If plants did not have these adaptations to their leaves, the plant would be weighed down with water and prone to fungal attack in the warm and humid conditions. Leaves are also large in order to capture as much light as possible in the dark understorey layer of the rainforest. Many tree species have saplings that have large leaves when they start to grow in the dark understorey but which then produce smaller leaves when they reach the light of the canopy. The emergent layer of trees is also an adaptation as tall trees grow and compete for light in the forest.

Soil and plant adaptations
Plants in the rainforest have adapted to grow successfully in the infertile latosol soil. They have adapted by growing very fast and having shallow root systems. Because of the wet, warm and humid conditions, dead organic matter is converted to humus very quickly by fungi and bacteria. If plants did not grow fast they would not be able to use the nutrients in the soil before they are leached out of it by heavy rain. Root systems are shallow because 90% of nutrients in the rainforest soil are in the upper O horizon so there is no need for plants to have deep roots. However to help support their great weigh, the tallest trees like mahogany have structures calls roots which grow out from the base of the trunk. These extended roots also increase the area over which nutrients can be absorbed from the soil.

Animal Adaptations to Climate and Soil
The tropical rainforest biome is perfect for animal survival. It is always warm and there are no seasons for food scarcity. There is shade in the jungle from the heat and shelter of the rain. There is no shortage of water. Due to the biodiversity of animals there is competition for food and space. Many animals have adapted by foraging for food at night, eg. jaguars. Many animals are arboreal, for example the wholly monkey and the sloth. They have adapted to living in tall jungle which grows in response to the climate and soil. Monkeys use their tails to keep balance as they jump from tree to tree. Flying squirrels have evolved flaps of skin between their front and back legs to jump between trees. Lemurs also live in the canopy. Macaws and parrots have hooked beaks which allow them to open nuts. They also use their beaks when climbing. The sloth has a two-toed claw to help grip the branches they hang from. They have large eyes to see in the shady environment. They have fur which keeps them warm as their metabolism is slow. The fur grows down form their body so the water form rainfall can be easily shed. Camouflage is one of the most effective adaptations used by many animals in the rainforest. One of the most common is for animals/insects/birds to use colour in order to look like a leaf or twig as the rainforest is scattered with with dead leaves. Moths, stick insects and tree frogs use this method. The jaguar has a spotted coat to blend into the shaded forest. Animals use blue/yellow/red to warn other species they are poisonous. An example is the macaw. The poison arrow frog is blue or green in colour and is poisonous. 

Geoecology Essay- Effect of Human Activity on a Biome

Assess how biomes have been altered by human activity

For the purpose of this question I will examine the Tropical Rainforest Biome and how it has been altered by human activities. Humans have had a massive impact on this biome and I will examine it under the headings of deforestation, intensive agriculture and the need for settlements areas.

Deforestation

There are various reasons why humans cut rainforests, however in Brazil it has been happening at an alarming rate since 1970. Trees are a renewable resource but in the Tropical Rainforest Biome not enough time is being given to allow to rainforest to grow back. The Brazilian Government is prepared to open up the 'Lungs of the Earth'in order to take advantage of the tropical hardwoods that grow in this biome and the mineral wealth that lies underneath the forest. Timber companies have been given the rights to remove forest and sell timber abroad. Tropical hardwoods such as teak and mahogany fetch huge profits abroad. The government of Brazil takes a percentage of these profits. However, illegal companies also operate, selling cheap supplies of plywood accounts for 80% of all timber produced. As the area is rich in resources, licences were given to mining companies o clear forests and mine for metals such as iron ore and copper. Experts estimate that 137 plant, animals and micro-organisms will be destroyed from this biome in the coming years due to deforestation. 40% of the rainforest will have disappeared. Natural habitats are being wiped out for plants and animal species, as well as the environment damage deforestation causes.

Intensive Agriculture

The Amazon covers 1 billion acres taking in countries like Brazil and Peru. 80% of the world's diet can grow in the Amazon like coconuts, oranges, bananas, rice, sugar and coffee. The opinion of the Brazilian government is that the rainforest is an economic resource and should be used to develop the economy. The demand in the Western World for cheap meat is met by Brazil's willingness to encourage MNC's to locate there to farm intensively or set up ranches. Ranches can slash and burn acres of rainforest and seed it with grass for cattle while receiving tax credits and loans from the government. Soya plantations are now becoming more of a threat than cattle ranches. Companies like McDonald's grow soya beans on acres of land that were once covered by forest. As a result the latosols of the Tropical Rainforest Biome are damaged by the agrochemicals and mechanisation levels to soil erosion. The roots of the trees that bind the soil together are gone and the heavy convectional rain washes the soil into the Amazon River. Soya is a plant not native to this biome and threatens the habitat as GMO's can invade the natural environment. The expansion of intensive agriculture (soya plantations) in Brazil is contributing to the loss of 40 hectare of rainforest every minute of every day. When a forest is cleared, the nutrient cycle is destroyed. The remaining soil can be easily washed away by heavy rain. In addition, as a result of the high temperatures in this region, the exposed soil is baked into a hard, brick-like surface, which cannot support plant growth. This is known as a laterite soil, which is useless for farming. The grass growth on the laterite is so poor that the beef cattle do not thrive and even more land is cleared to feed them.

Need for Settlement

A new capital, Brasilia, was built form scratch in the heart of the Amazon rainforest in the 50's as Brazil gained freedom from Portugal. This was to encourage the settlement of the region. Today it has a population of 2.3 million. To construct this city, large areas of forest were cleared. More deforestation occurred on the outskirts of the city where small, temporary housing settlements were built for the migrant workers who moved to this area in order to construct the new capital. Instead of returning to their original homes on completion of the city, these workers chose to stay and avail of the greater opportunities in Brasilia. An unlimited water supply and ideal river conditions led to the development of many HEP stations to support the growing settlements in the Amazon. Over 125 new HEP dams have been built in the Brazilian rainforest area. One example is the Tucuri Dam, which caused over 2500km  of rainforest to be flooded. More than 8000 people lost their homes and thousands of animals died. The Trans-Amazonian highway, a 5300km road, was built across Brazil from east to west to facilitate settlement in the Amazon basin and also to allow the movement of people and goods through previously inaccessible areas. This affects the emissions from all the cars using the road and many animals native to the biome were killed as the motorway crosses their natural habitat. In January 2000, the Brazilian government announced its plan for Avanca Brazil. This is a €30 billion plan to cover much of the Amazon rainforest with 10000km of highways, hydroelectric dams, power lines, mines, gas and oilfields, canals, ports, logging concessions and other industrial developments. All of the above has resulted in the loss of many species of plants, and this is a serious concern as some contain chemicals that could one day cure serious illnesses. About one quarter of the medicines we use come from rainforest plants eg. aspirin. The Tropical Rainforest Biome is a carbon sink meaning that the trees take in carbon from the air and store it and use it to create oxygen. Today as carbon emissions around the world rise, the loss of vast amounts of trees in the rainforest will contribute to climate change. By burning the forest to create land, more carbon is also released into the atmosphere.